Have you ever come across the idea that people make society? In sociology, we hear a lot about how society shapes and 'makes' people and our decisions, but social action theorists hold that the reverse is true.
- In this explanation, we will explore and evaluate social action theory.
- We will begin by defining social action theory, including how it differs from structural theory.
- Then, we will look at the role of sociologist Max Weber in creating social action theory.
- We will study the key concepts within social action theory.
- Finally, we will examine the strengths and weaknesses of social action theory.
Definition of social action theory
What is social action theory? Let's look at a definition:
Social action theory in sociology is a critical theory that holds that society is a construction of the interactions and meanings of its members. It explains human behaviour at a microscopic, small-scale level through which we can understand societal structures. You may also know it by the name interactionism.
Structural vs social action theory
As you may be able to tell, social action theory is quite different from other sociological theories, particularly structuralism.
This is because social action theory argues that society is made up of human behaviour and that people create and embed meaning into institutions. On the other hand, structural theories are based on the idea that society is made up of institutions and that these institutions shape and give meaning to human behaviour.
An example of a structural theory is Marxism, which views society as based on class struggle and capitalist institutions that govern human lives.
Weber and social action theory
Sociologist Max Weber developed social action theory. As we have mentioned, unlike structuralist theories such as functionalism, Marxism, or feminism, social action theory states that people create society, institutions, and structures. People determine society, not the other way around. Society is created 'from the bottom up'.
Weber attributes this to the fact that norms and values are not fixed but flexible. He argues that individuals give them meaning, and have a much more active influence in shaping society than structuralist theorists assume.
We will examine and evaluate some of the fundamental concepts of social action theory in more detail now.
Key concepts and examples of social action theory
Weber introduced several critical concepts within the framework of social action theory that expanded his theory of how individuals contribute to the shaping of society. Let's look at these, along with some examples.
Social action and understanding
According to Weber, social action should be the primary focus of sociology. Social action is the term for an action behind which an individual attaches meaning.
Accidentally dropping a glass on the floor is not a social action because it was not conscious or intentional. In contrast, washing a car is a social action because it is done consciously, and there is a motive behind it.
Unlike positivists, he believed in an interpretivist, subjective approach to understanding human behaviour.
Weber only considered an action to be 'social' if it took into account the behaviour of other people, because that also contributes to the creation of meaning. Mere contact with other people does not make an action 'social'.
He also believed that we should practise understanding, i.e., empathy, to understand the meaning behind people's actions. He specified two kinds of understanding:
Aktuelles Verstehen (Direct understanding) – directly observing and understanding social actions. For example, when we observe someone washing their car, we have some understanding of what that person is doing. However, Weber argued that pure observation is not enough to understand the meaning behind their social action.
Erklärendes Verstehen (Empathetic understanding) – understanding the meaning and motives behind the social action. To do this, we need to put ourselves in the shoes of the person doing the social action to find what meaning they attach to it. For instance, we cannot tell why someone is washing a car simply by watching them do it. Are they doing it because the car genuinely needs cleaning, or because they find it relaxing? Are they washing someone else's car as a favour, or is it an overdue chore?
Weber argues that we can understand human actions and social change by understanding the meanings given to social actions. He says that we should interpret the lived experiences of others subjectively (through their own first-hand personal knowledge) rather than trying to understand how others think and feel objectively.
Calvinism, social action, and social change
In his famous book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber highlighted the example of the Calvinist denomination within the Protestant religion. He noted that Calvinists used their work ethic and individualistic values (social action) to promote capitalism (social change) in Western Europe in the 17th century.
Calvinist influences on capitalism.
Weber argued that the meanings behind social actions in Calvinists' lives led to social change. For example, it was not just that people worked for long hours, but why they worked long hours - to prove their devotion.
The four types of social action
In his work Economy and Society (1921), Weber outlines four forms of social action that people undertake. These include:
Instrumentally rational action
Traditional action
Action that is done out of a custom or habit (e.g., going to church every Sunday because you have been doing it since childhood, or taking off your shoes before entering the house because you have always been told to do so).
Affectional action
Fig. 2 - Weber believed that understanding people's meanings and motivations helps in understanding their actions.
Social action theory: strengths and weaknesses
Social action theory has a unique perspective; it has strengths but is also subject to criticism.
Positive aspects of social action theory
Social action theory acknowledges individual agency and motivations for change and impact on society. It allows for large-scale structural change.
The theory does not see the individual as a passive entity in a societal structure. Instead, the individual is viewed as an active member and shaper of society.
It can help trace significant structural changes throughout history by considering the meanings behind social actions.
Criticisms of social action theory
The case study of Calvinism is not necessarily a good example of social action and social change, as many other capitalist societies have emerged from non-Protestant countries.
There may be more motivations behind the actions than the four types outlined by Weber.
Proponents of structural theories argue that the social action theory ignores the effects of societal structures on the individual; society shapes individuals, not the other way around.
Social Action Theory - Key takeaways
- Social action theory in sociology is a critical theory that holds that society is a construction of interactions and meanings given to it by its members. It explains human behaviour at a microscopic, small-scale level.
- Social action is an action to which an individual attaches meaning. The four types of social action are instrumentally rational, value rational, traditional, and affectional.
- There are two ways of understanding people's actions:
- Aktuelles Verstehen is directly observing and understanding social actions.
- Erklärendes Verstehen is understanding the meaning and motives behind a social action.
- The case study of Calvinism and capitalism is an example of social action leading to social change.
- Social action theory recognises the effects of individual action, thereby allowing for large-scale structural change. It also does not view the individual as passive. However, the theory may not cover all motivations for social action, and it ignores the effects of societal structures on individuals.
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