Ethnic Inequality

For most of recent history, societies have been entrenched with ideologies and practices underpinned by ethnic inequality. Many people will have reported experiencing some form of racism, whether this has been in a social setting or at the institutional level. Scholars need to step in and examine this phenomenon because it has severe consequences for people's livelihoods and life chances.

• In this explanation, we're going to unpack the term 'ethnic inequality' and its impacts on health, education and employment.
• We'll start by discussing the meaning of ethnic inequality.
• This will be followed by some ethnic inequality facts, as well as some examples of ethnic inequality in the real world.
• Next, we will take a look at the causes and effects of ethnic inequality, in domains including education, work chances, physical health and mental health.
• We will close with a brief discussion on the relevance of 'ethnicity' according to various sociological theories.

Ethnic inequality meaning

While the term 'ethnic inequality' seems relatively straightforward, each of these words is complex and layered in the field of sociology. Let's start by breaking down the term to understand its components.

What is 'ethnicity'?

According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology, the Greek noun 'ethnos' is a distant ancestor of the English word 'ethnic', and with its entry into modern languages, has been used to refer to "people" and "nation" (Lemert, 2006, P. 174).

The term "ethnicity" came in use in the social sciences in the late nineteenth century as a means to address the social conflict between local and immigrant groups in Europe and North America.

Ethnicity and race

It's essential to take note of the theoretical difference between ethnicity and race. The word 'ethnicity' is usually used to refer to someone's cultural identification and expressions, like their clothes and languages. On the other hand, the term 'race' is generally used to refer to physical and biological characteristics, like skin colour and phenotypical features.

The concept of 'race' has been strongly discredited in the social sciences because there's nothing about our ethnic background that is inherent or biological. Because of this widespread biological assumption of 'race', it has historically been used to justify oppressive and discriminatory practices, like slavery.

What is 'inequality'?

As we know, different forms of inequality have been pervasive across all societies historically and today. Generally, the differences between groups that are characterised as "inequality" has meant that they have differential access to:

• life chances,

• economic resources,

• power and/or influence, and

• status.

Defining 'ethnic inequality'

Fig. 1 - It's important to consider the social, economic and cultural impacts of ethnic inequality.

Based on the meaning of the two respective words, we can discern that 'ethnic inequality' refers to differential access to opportunities, resources and overall life chances based on an individual or group's ethnic identification and expression.

Let's take a look at some quick facts about ethnic inequality around the world.

Ethnic inequality: facts

Ethnic minorities are significantly more likely to:

• experience unemployment,

• be prosecuted by the criminal justice system,

• be the victims of crimes,

• live in substandard housing,

• experience physical and mental health-related issues, and

• be socially and institutionally excluded from education.

Examples of ethnic inequality: crime

Several important dimensions of inequality are sometimes neglected from study or analysis because they are not as apparent as other forms of stratification. Let's take a look at this in the context of the UK.

Ethnic inequality in crime

Statistics show that Black people are three times more likely to be prosecuted than their white counterparts for the same offences. Furthermore, when prosecuted, sentencing is much harsher for ethnic minorities.

Aside from being targeted by the criminal justice system, people from ethnic minority backgrounds are also significantly more likely to be victims of crimes, including homicide, hate crimes, and domestic abuse.

Causes of ethnic inequality

According to sociologists, the causes of ethnic inequality are structural or systemic, in that these inequalities are entrenched in the laws, policies and regulations of a given society. This phenomenon is often referred to as institutional racism and is pervasive in many societal structures, as we will now explore.

Ethnic inequality and education

Fig. 2 - Ethnic and cultural factors play a significant role in shaping the educational experience of all school-goers worldwide.

It has long been the case that Black Caribbean students achieve the lowest grades at the GCSE level in the UK. This has been explained by the fact that ethnic minority students who don't do very well in school tend to be from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds - meaning that poor living conditions and a lack of resources often prevent students from being able to study effectively.

On the other hand, ethnic minority groups are more likely to complete their A-Levels and attend university than their white peers. Research suggests that this is because students from ethnic minority backgrounds, particularly Asian students, are more likely to be encouraged and even pressured by their parents to academically succeed. However, minority ethnic groups are still less likely to be accepted into the country's top universities, even where their grades and qualifications are the same as those of their white peers.

Following the link between ethnicity and education (as well as accounting for additional factors), it is not surprising that ethnic minorities are much less likely to be employed than white people. For instance, the Office for National Statistics reports that in 2019, 78% of White working-age people were employed, compared with 66% of all other ethnicities combined (Office for National Statistics, 2021).

Moreover, the lowest employment rate is seen among Bangladeshi and Pakistani people, with a total employment rate of 56% across both groups. This is compared to 4% of the overall unemployed population in this period (Office for National Statistics, 2021). This is indicative of discrimination in hiring practices.

In their study of Handsworth, Birmingham, Rex and Tomlinson (1979) observed that the working-class population is primarily made up of people from ethnic minority backgrounds. They concluded that class and status inequalities cause poverty, which is further exacerbated through belonging to ethnic minority groups (in the sense that ethnic identity determines one's status). For instance, they identified the existence of a Black underclass that is severely excluded from wider society.

This is exemplified by the National Statistics, which show that the majority (45%) of all households had a weekly income of under £600 in the three years leading up to the pandemic. Notably, Black households were most likely of all groups to fall below this benchmark.

Ethnic inequality and health

Fig. 3 - Health standards are generally poorer for minority ethnic groups, but this changes when controlling for socioeconomic factors.

For the past couple of decades, research has consistently shown that people from minority ethnic backgrounds have poorer health than the overall population average in the UK.

Of course, sociologists argue that socioeconomic factors can explain this. They contest the idea that differential cultural practices and behaviours can explain ill-health because this approach tends to place blame on the victim.

As we've discussed, people from ethnic minority backgrounds are also much more likely to experience unemployment and poverty than their white counterparts. This social and economic deprivation has been cited as the leading cause of ill-health among minority ethnic groups, which is demonstrated by the fact that health is generally better for white and Black individuals with high incomes than both ethnic groups with lower incomes.

Ethnic inequalities in mental health

Several reports from the National Health Service (NHS) show that people from ethnic minority backgrounds (including Black and Asian backgrounds) are more likely to experience mental health problems in adulthood. Moreover, around twice the number of Black and Black-British adults have post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to white British adults.

Despite this, they are also less likely to receive treatment or support for these struggles. Where they do receive treatment, this is often through the criminal justice system, by which they have been detained or restricted under the Mental Health Act.

Is ethnicity relevant?

Sociological perspectives attribute different levels of importance to ethnicity as a source of both identity and analysis.

Marxist view on the relevance of ethnicity

Marxists argue that ethnic discrimination is tied in with and perpetuated by class inequalities in the capitalist economic system. They say that the notion of 'race' is used to justify unequal hiring and reimbursement practices and scapegoat ethnic minorities as the source of unemployment and economic distress in a given society.

Robert Miles adopts this Marxist critique of theories of ethnicity, arguing that certain groups are 'racialised' due to practices of capitalism and not because of actual, inherent perceptions of race or ethnicity. In this sense, all ethnicities and classes are capable of being 'racialised'. In line with this view, ethnicity is not that relevant neither as an aspect of social identity nor as a dimension of inequality (compared to socioeconomic class).

Postmodernist view on the relevance of ethnicity

Shaping identities

Like most other postmodernists, Modood challenges the influence of broader society in determining our identities, behaviours and beliefs. He argues that cultural identities are no longer subject to national boundaries due to globalisation. We choose the aspects of various cultures we want to incorporate into our lifestyles, creating hybrid identities. Ethnic difference is now a choice.

The experience of discrimination

However, Modood points out that while the experience of ethnic identification and difference might have changed, this does not negate the prevalence of prejudice and discrimination. It simply means that the extent, forms and effects of ethnic inequality will be more individualised than was historically the case.

This is demonstrated in Modood et al.'s (1997) large-scale study of Ethnic Minorities in Britain. It was found that there are significant variations in the prevalence of health, education and employment between and within ethnic minority groups.