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Evolution of Human Aggression

Why does Aggression exist? How is aggression useful for surviving as human beings? What is our evolutionary need in nature to act aggressively? Aggression manifests in different forms, and evolution dictates it serves a purpose. Let's explore the evolution of human aggression and look at the prevalence of intimate partner violence, male aggression, and bullying.

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Evolution of Human Aggression

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Why does Aggression exist? How is aggression useful for surviving as human beings? What is our evolutionary need in nature to act aggressively? Aggression manifests in different forms, and evolution dictates it serves a purpose. Let's explore the evolution of human aggression and look at the prevalence of intimate partner violence, male aggression, and bullying.

  • We are going to explore the evolution of human Aggression. First, we will give a definition of Aggression in psychology.
  • Then, we will briefly look at the causes of aggression in psychology.
  • Next, we will examine two types of aggression in human evolution.
  • After, we will briefly explore Gender differences in aggression in psychology.
  • Finally, we will evaluate evolutionary explanations of aggression.

Evolution of Human Aggression, display of dinosaur, animal and human skeletons, VaiaFig. 1 - There may be an evolutionary reason behind human aggression.

Definition of Aggression in Psychology

Aggression is acting on feelings of anger with violence or hostility. It is an innate trait that occurs in many different species, from dogs, cats, lions, hyenas, and humans. The evolutionary explanation accounts for how a species changes over millions of years, acquiring characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction through natural selection.

Psychologists are interested in exploring how and why humans feel and behave aggressively, and one way of exploring this is by looking at how humans have evolved.

There are three notable types of aggression in psychology:

  1. Reactive-expressive (e.g., verbal/physical).
  2. Reactive-inexpressive (e.g., hostility).
  3. Proactive-relational aggression (aggression that damages human Relationships).

There are also several suggested causes for the innate reaction of aggression.

Causes of Aggression in Psychology

Aggression characterises itself as causing physical and psychological harm to yourself or others or things within the environment. It is destructive behaviour, but does it have any benefits? For evolutionary explanations, the answer has to be yes. Potential evolutionary causes of aggression could be:

  • Defeating sexual rivals.
  • Attaining and maintaining Relationships with mates (deterring infidelity).
  • Sexual jealousy of rivals.
  • Dominance and social status.
  • Gaining resources.
  • Defending resources, the self, and family.

Evolution of Human Aggression, the silhouettes of five people are increasing in height from left to right, representing a short timeline of human evolution, Vaia.Fig. 2- Aggression may have been beneficial for human evolution.

Two Types of Aggression in Human Evolution

Sexual jealousy is suggested to be a main motivator in the escalation of aggressive behaviour in our evolution, mainly in male attempts at avoiding cuckoldry. Cuckoldry refers to raising a child that is not your own.

  • Males fear cuckoldry because any investment in offspring that is not their own is a waste of resources, as the child will not have his genes.

The threat of cuckoldry can make men uncertain about child paternity and increase aggression. In the past, men were more successful if they avoided cuckoldry, so it is suggested psychological mechanisms have developed to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in males.

Example of Aggression in Psychology: Mate Retention Strategies

Retention strategies include direct guarding and negative inducements in psychology. They are mate retention strategies, specifically:

  • Direct guarding: male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour (e.g., checking who they’ve been seeing).

  • Negative inducements: the use of threatening awful things for unfaithfulness or leaving (e.g., ‘I’ll kill myself if you leave me').

Wilson and Daly (1996) identify mate retention strategies which are highly violent. These strategies result from the potential loss of female mates through infidelity or unintentional paternal investments when the child is not their own. Infidelity in wives is one of the major causes of violent rage in males, regardless of societal views of such behaviour towards women (some view it as reprehensible, whilst others view it as restoring a man’s honour).

Battered women in Wilson and Daly (1996) also stated jealousy was one of the primary reasons behind the motives of their husband's violent behaviour towards them.

Example of Aggression in Psychology: Intimate Partner Violence

Shackelford et al. (2005) studied heterosexual couples through different questionnaires. The men’s was about mate retention behaviours, and the women’s was called the spouse influence report, which measured the extent of their partner’s violence in their relationship.

Shackelford et al. (2005) found a strong positive Correlation between male mate retention behaviours and women reporting physical violence. The researchers said that these retention behaviours reliably predicted husbands’ violence against their wives.

Gender Differences in Aggression: Psychology

Aggression and the source of the feelings differ in males and females. According to Griskevicius et al. (2009), for men, motives behind direct aggression, such as face-to-face confrontation, primarily revolved around status and were boosted by mating motives. Interestingly, mating motives were only boosted when other men were observing.

Women, however, had both status and mating motives, which only increased indirect aggression (social exclusion, etc.), and they became more directly aggressive when resources were scarce.

Testosterone is suggested to be a factor relating to aggression.

Typically, status and mating motives did not increase direct aggression in women.

Evolution of Human Aggression, black silhouettes of a man and woman holding hands on a grassy hill, backs to the camera facing towards an orange sunset, Vaia.Fig. 3 - There are Gender differences in the evolution of aggression.

Buss et al. (1992) found sex differences in jealousy through a cross-cultural questionnaire study. They were given scenarios where their partners were suggested to be interested in other people. They were asked what would cause more distress: an emotional or sexual relationship with the other person.

More men than women found sexual infidelity more distressing than emotional infidelity. It was suggested that jealousy in men results from paternal uncertainty, and jealousy in women is apparent more due to the emotional threat of a man leaving them for another woman.

It was suggested this feeling is innate, not learned (as it was generalisable across cultures), but as it was hypothetical, it is not entirely valid.

Bullying occurs because of a power imbalance. A more powerful person uses deliberate, repeated aggression against a weaker person. People often think bullying results from maladaptive behaviours, e.g., childhood abuse., but our evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying to increase their survival by increasing their chances of reproduction.

Volk et al. (2012) argue that bullying characteristics are attractive to the opposite sex. In males, this refers to dominance and strength. These characteristics can also help males fend off rivals.

They, therefore, have the perfect combination of attracting females and warding off rivals, leading to greater reproductive opportunities. In females, bullying often occurs within a relationship and is about control. Women bully to keep their partner’s fidelity, meaning he will provide her and their offspring with resources.

Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression Evaluation

We need to assess the explanations and identify their reliability and validity. Let's explore the strengths and weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation of aggression.

Strengths

Many studies, including that of Shackelford et al. (2005) mentioned earlier, show that mate retention strategies are linked to sexual jealousy and aggression. Shackelford’s study shows that the greater the perceived risk of infidelity/cuckoldry, the greater the aggression. This finding supports the idea that we can evolutionarily explain aggression.

Evolutionary theory explains gender differences, e.g., men engaging in aggressive acts more than women. Females are less likely to be physically aggressive, as this could hurt them or their offspring (Anne Campbell 1999), but more likely to be verbally aggressive to keep their partner who provides resources for them.

This ability to explain gender differences is a strength of the evolutionary theory.

Evolutionary explanations show us that bullies bully because they can gain advantages. Volk et al. (2012) argue that we need to increase the cost of bullying and increase the rewards of alternatives.

Weaknesses

Cultural differences can play a significant role in aggression.

For example, the Kung San people of the Kalahari have very negative attitudes towards aggression and discourage it from childhood.

In contrast, the Yanomamo of Venezuela and Brazil are called the ‘fierce people’ because they value and reward aggression.

It is also tough to test hypotheses about evolutionary behaviours to solve adaptation problems in our past. Most of our research is correlational, allowing us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.


Evolution of Human Aggression - Key takeaways

  • Evolutionary explanations account for how a species changes over millions of years, acquiring characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction through natural selection.
  • Potential evolutionary reasons behind aggression can include defeating sexual rivals, attaining and maintaining relationships with mates (deterring infidelity), sexual jealousy of rivals, dominance and social status, gaining resources and defending resources, the self, and mates.
  • Men experience paternity uncertainty because they can never be sure if they have fathered a child.

  • Wilson and Daly (1985) found in a study on murders occurring in the Detroit area that the vast majority of killers and those killed were male (young men, specifically), and a chunk of these cases resulted from escalated disputes concerning status.

  • Retention strategies include direct guarding (male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour) and negative inducements (the use of threatening awful things for unfaithfulness or leaving).

Frequently Asked Questions about Evolution of Human Aggression

Evolutionary theory explains human aggression by identifying how it benefits us by improving survival chances. The main functions of human aggression are defeating sexual rivals and retaining mates.

Yes, if it increases our chances of survival. Aggression has evolutionary functions if it helps us find food, mates, shelter, or safety.

Human aggression is rooted in the need for survival and reproduction. The negative emotions that come from a lack of safety and the risk of not surviving (for example, fear, jealousy, anxiety) can lead to aggressive behaviour.

The three types of aggression are:

1. Reactive-expressive (e.g., verbal/physical).

2. Reactive-inexpressive (e.g., hostility).

3. Proactive-relational aggression (aggression that damages human relationships).

Yes. For example, one theory concerning bullying suggests humans have adapted to bullying to enhance their chances of reproduction. The male bullying characteristics of dominance and strength are attractive to females and help them fend off potential rivals. The female bullying characteristics of control help them retain their male partners.

Final Evolution of Human Aggression Quiz

Evolution of Human Aggression Quiz - Teste dein Wissen

Question

What is an ‘evolutionary explanation’?

Show answer

Answer

An evolutionary explanation accounts for the changes in species over millions of years; characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are naturally selected.

Show question

Question

For evolutionary explanations, does aggression have any benefits?

Show answer

Answer

Aggression has benefits such as defeating sexual rivals and retaining mates.

Show question

Question

True or false: Females experience sexual jealousy more than males.


Show answer

Answer

False. Males experience sexual jealousy more than females.

Show question

Question

What is cuckoldry?

Show answer

Answer

Cuckoldry is when someone has to raise a child that is not their own.

Show question

Question

We discussed two examples of mate retention strategies. One of these is ‘direct guarding’, where a male acts with increased vigilance over his partner. What is the other example?

Show answer

Answer

The other example is negative inducements, such as threatening awful things for unfaithfulness (e.g.‘I’ll kill myself if you leave’).

Show question

Question

 In Todd Shackelford’s 2005 study, what did the ‘spouse influence report’ measure?

Show answer

Answer

The spouse influence report measured the extent of their partner’s violence in their relationship.

Show question

Question

Tony Volk argues that we could explain bullying in terms of evolution because bullying characteristics are attractive to the opposite sex. Select the statement that is true for males.

Show answer

Answer

Male bullying characteristics are dominance and strength. This is attractive to females and helps males fend off rivals.

Show question

Question

True or false: Evolutionary explanations can explain gender differences.

Show answer

Answer

True. This is one of the advantages of evolutionary explanations.

Show question

Question

What methodological issues could discredit evolutionary explanations of aggression?

Show answer

Answer

Most of our research is correlational, which allows us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions. It is tough to test hypotheses.

Show question

Question

Why have men developed psychological mechanisms to increase their anti-cuckoldry behaviours? 

Show answer

Answer

They do not want to invest time and resources in any child that wasn't their own, and they experience paternity uncertainty. In the past, men were more successful if they avoided cuckoldry.

Show question

Question

Give an example of how we could increase the cost of bullying and increase the rewards of alternatives, as argued by Volk et al.

Show answer

Answer

For example, we could encourage bullies to participate in aggressive sports, allowing them to show their strength without actually bullying anyone.

Show question

Question

What kind of differences could play a role in how we perceive aggression?

Show answer

Answer

Cultural differences. Some people grow up in cultures where aggression is highly valued, and some where it is criticised.

Show question

Question

Why are females less likely to be physically aggressive?

Show answer

Answer

Because it could hurt them or their offspring, damaging their chances of reproduction.

Show question

Question

True or false: Shackelford's 2005 study showed that the greater the perceived risk of infidelity, the greater the aggression.

Show answer

Answer

True.

Show question

Question

In what environment does bullying occur?

Show answer

Answer

In power imbalance, i.e., when a more powerful person uses deliberate, repeated aggression against a weaker person.

Show question

Question

Aggression is an innate trait that occurs in many different species, from dogs, cats, lions, hyenas, and humans.

Show answer

Answer

True.

Show question

Question

The three types of aggression in psychology are:

Show answer

Answer


  1. Reactive-expressive (e.g., verbal/physical).
  2. Reactive-inexpressive (e.g., hostility).
  3. Proactive-relational aggression (aggression that damages human relationships).
     


Show question

Question

Aggression characterises itself to cause physical and psychological harm to yourself or others or things within the environment. 

Show answer

Answer

True.

Show question

Question

Potential causes of aggression could be:

Show answer

Answer

  • Defeating sexual rivals.
  • Attaining and maintaining relationships with mates (Detering infidelity).
  • Sexual jealousy of rivals.
  • Dominance and social status.
  • Gaining resources.
  • Defending resources, the self, and mates.

Show question

Question

Wilson and Daly (1996) identify mate retention strategies, which are highly _______.

Show answer

Answer

violent.

Show question

Question

What did Shackelford et al. (2005) find about intimate partner violence?

Show answer

Answer

He found a strong positive correlation between male mate retention behaviours and women reporting physical violence. The researchers said that these retention behaviours reliably predicted husbands’ violence against their wives. 

Show question

Question

According to Griskevicius et al. (2009), what are the motives behind direct aggression for men?

Show answer

Answer

Motives behind direct aggression such as face-to-face confrontation primarily revolved around status and were boosted by mating motives. 

Show question

Question

Interestingly, mating motives for men were only boosted when other men were observing.

Show answer

Answer

True.

Show question

Question

According to Griskevicius et al. (2009), what are the motives behind direct aggression for women?

Show answer

Answer

Women, however, had both status and mating motives, which only increased indirect aggression (social exclusion, etc.), and they became more directly aggressive when resources were scarce. 

Show question

Question

Typically, status and mating motives did not increase direct aggression in women. 

Show answer

Answer

True.

Show question

Question

In Buss et al. (1992) cross-cultural questionnaire study, which gender found sexual infidelity more distressing than emotional infidelity  

Show answer

Answer

Men.

Show question

Question

What is a definition of aggression?

Show answer

Answer

Aggression is acting on feelings of anger with violence or hostility.

Show question

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

Tony Volk argues that we could explain bullying in terms of evolution because bullying characteristics are attractive to the opposite sex. Select the statement that is true for males.

Aggression is an innate trait that occurs in many different species, from dogs, cats, lions, hyenas, and humans.

Aggression characterises itself to cause physical and psychological harm to yourself or others or things within the environment. 

Next

Flashcards in Evolution of Human Aggression27

Start learning

What is an ‘evolutionary explanation’?

An evolutionary explanation accounts for the changes in species over millions of years; characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are naturally selected.

For evolutionary explanations, does aggression have any benefits?

Aggression has benefits such as defeating sexual rivals and retaining mates.

True or false: Females experience sexual jealousy more than males.


False. Males experience sexual jealousy more than females.

What is cuckoldry?

Cuckoldry is when someone has to raise a child that is not their own.

We discussed two examples of mate retention strategies. One of these is ‘direct guarding’, where a male acts with increased vigilance over his partner. What is the other example?

The other example is negative inducements, such as threatening awful things for unfaithfulness (e.g.‘I’ll kill myself if you leave’).

 In Todd Shackelford’s 2005 study, what did the ‘spouse influence report’ measure?

The spouse influence report measured the extent of their partner’s violence in their relationship.

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