On 26 June 1941, Bosnian-Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz-Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Within a couple of days, one of the most deadly conflicts in history embroiled the entirety of Europe. The four-year conflict of the First World War reduced Europe to ruin, and 20 million people lost their lives.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is often cited as the sole cause of the First World War. While the death of the heir presumptive was undoubtedly the flash point that set the war in motion, the origins of the conflict ran much deeper. The various long-term factors at play not only prompted the war but elevated the conflict from an Eastern European matter to the 'war to end all wars'.
Causes Of First World War Summary
A helpful way to remember the causes of the First World War is to use the acronym MAIN:
| Acronym | Cause | Explanation |
| M | Militarism | Throughout the late 1800s, the major European countries fought for military supremacy. The European powers sought to expand their military forces and use force to resolve international disputes. |
| A | Alliance Systems | Alliances between the major European powers split Europe into two camps: The Triple Alliance between Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy, and the Triple Entente between France, Great Britain, and Russia. The alliance system ultimately elevated the conflict between Bosnia and Austria-Hungary into a major European war. |
| I | Imperialism | Throughout the late 1800s, the major European powers sought to increase their influence in Africa. The so-called 'scramble for Africa' increased tensions between countries in Europe and cemented the alliance systems. |
| N | Nationalism | The early 20th century saw the exponential rise of nationalism in Europe, with countries becoming more aggressive and confident. Furthermore, it was Serbian nationalism that led Gavrilo Princip to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand and set in motion the First World War. |
Militarism WW1
Throughout the early 1900s, countries increased military expenditure and sought to build up their armed forces. Military personnel dominated politics, soldiers were portrayed as heroes, and army expenditure was at the forefront of government spending. Such militarism created an environment where war was seen as the best way of resolving disputes.
Militarism
The belief that a nation should use its military power to achieve its international aims.
Military Expenditure
From 1870, the major European superpowers began to increase their military expenditure. This was particularly evident in the case of Germany, whose military spending increased by 74% between 1910 and 1914.
Here is a brief table outlining the combined military expenditure (in millions sterling) of Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia from 1870 to 19141:
| 1870 | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 | 1914 |
| Combined Military Expenditure (£m) | 94 | 130 | 154 | 268 | 289 | 389 |
Naval Arms Race
For centuries, Great Britain had ruled the seas. The British Royal Navy – the most formidable naval force in the world – was essential in protecting Britain's colonial trade routes.
When Kaiser Wilhelm II ascended the German throne in 1888, he sought to amass a naval force that could rival Great Britain's. Britain was suspicious of Germany's new-found desire to acquire a navy. After all, Germany was a predominantly landlocked country with few overseas colonies.
Hostilities between the two countries heightened when Britain developed the HMS Dreadnought in 1906. This revolutionary new type of ship rendered all previous vessels obsolete. Between 1906 and 1914, Great Britain and Germany battled over naval supremacy, with both sides attempting to build the most number of dreadnoughts.
Fig. 1 HMS Dreadnought.
Here is a quick table outlining the total number of Dreadnoughts built by Germany and Great Britain between 1906 and 1914:
| 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 |
| Germany | 0 | 0 | 4 | 7 | 8 | 11 | 13 | 16 | 17 |
| Great Britain | 1 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 11 | 16 | 19 | 26 | 29 |
Preparations for War
As hostilities increased, the major European superpowers made preparations for war. Let's look at how the key players prepared.
Great Britain
Unlike their European counterparts, Great Britain didn't agree with conscription. Instead, they developed the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The British Expeditionary Force was an elite fighting unit of 150,000 trained soldiers. When war broke out in 1914, the BEF was dispatched to France.
Conscription
A policy which enforces military service.
Fig. 2 British Expeditionary Force.
France
In 1912, France developed a military plan of action known as Plan 17. Plan 17 was a strategy to mobilise the French army and advance into the Ardennes before Germany could deploy its Reserve Army.
Russia
Unlike its European counterparts, Russia was grossly unprepared for war. The Russians relied solely on the sheer size of their army. Upon the outbreak of war, Russia had approximately 6 million troops in its main and reserve armies. To put this into perspective, Great Britain had under 1 million, and the United States had 200,000.
Germany
Germany introduced conscription, meaning all men aged between 17 and 45 were required to perform military service. Furthermore, in 1905, Germany also set about developing the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was a military strategy that sought to defeat France first before turning its attention to Russia. By doing this, the German army could avoid fighting a war on two fronts.
Alliance System WW1
The European alliance systems prompted the First World War and escalated the conflict from an Eastern European dispute to a war that engulfed Europe. By 1907, Europe was divided into The Triple Alliance and The Triple Entente.
| The Triple Alliance (1882) | The Triple Entente (1907) |
| Austria-Hungary | Great Britain |
| Germany | France |
| Italy | Russia |
The Formation of the Triple Alliance
In 1871, Prussian Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck unified the German states and formed the German Empire. To protect the new-found German Empire, Bismarck set about making alliances.
For Bismarck, allies were in short supply; Britain was following a policy of splendid isolationism, and France was still angry about the German seizure of Alsace-Lorraine. Consequently, Bismarck established the Three Emperors League with Austria-Hungary and Russia in 1873.
Splendid Isolationism
Splendid Isolationism was a policy enacted by Great Britain throughout the 1800s in which they avoided alliances.
Russia left the Three Emperors League in 1878, leading to Germany and Austria-Hungary establishing the Dual Alliance in 1879. The Dual Alliance became the Triple Alliance in 1882, with the addition of Italy.
Fig. 3 Otto von Bismarck.
The Formation of the Triple Entente
With the naval race in full swing, Great Britain set about finding their own allies. Great Britain signed the Entente Cordial with France in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Convention with Russia in 1907. Finally, in 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Convention was signed between Britain and France.
Imperialism In WW1
Between 1885 and 1914, the European superpowers sought to extend their influence in Africa. This period of rapid colonisation has come to be known as the 'Scramble for Africa'. Such aggressive imperial foreign policy caused conflict between the major European powers, intensifying the hostilities between some countries and strengthening the alliances between others.
Let's look at three examples of how imperialism deepened the divides in Europe:
The First Moroccan Crisis
In March 1905, France outlined its desire to increase French control in Morocco. Upon hearing the intentions of France, Kaiser Wilhelm visited the Moroccan city of Tangier and delivered a speech declaring his support for Moroccan independence.
Fig. 4 Kaiser Wilhelm II visits Tangier.
With France and Germany on the brink of war, the Algeciras Conference was called in April 1906 to settle the dispute. At the conference, it was clear that Austria-Hungary supported Germany. In contrast, France had the support of Great Britain, Russia, and the United States. Germany had no option but to back down and accept France's 'special interests' in Morocco.
The Second Moroccan Crisis
In 1911, a small uprising began in the Moroccan city of Fez. After pleas for support from the Moroccan sultan, France sent troops to suppress the rebellion. Angered by French involvement, Germany sent a gunboat – the Panther – to Agadir. The Germans argued that they sent the Panther to help stop the Fez uprising; in reality, it was a bid to oppose increased French control in the region.
France responded to German intervention by doubling down and sending more troops to Morocco. With France and Germany once again on the brink of war, France turned to Great Britain and Russia for support. With Germany once again powerless, the Treaty of Fez was signed in November 1911, giving France control of Morocco.
The Ottoman Empire
During the late 1800s, the once mighty Ottoman Empire fell into a period of rapid decline. In response, the European superpowers sought to increase their control in the Balkans:
- Russia defeated the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, claiming several territories in the Caucasus.
- To the anger of Russia, Germany built the Berlin-Baghdad railway in 1904. The railway increased German influence in the region.
- France took control of Tunisia in 1881.
- Britain occupied Egypt in 1882.
The European battle for Ottoman territory exacerbated tensions and deepened the divide in Europe.
Nationalism In WW1
Throughout the late 19th century, nationalism was on the rise in Europe. Austria-Hungary established a Dual Monarchy in 1867, Italy unified in 1870, and Germany unified in 1871. Such developments destabilised the balance of power in Europe. They instilled an intense patriotism that led to countries being overly aggressive and eager to 'show off'.
The most significant example of nationalism as a cause of the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
After Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, Serbian nationalism grew exponentially in Bosnia. Many Bosnian Serbs wanted to be free from Austro-Hungarian rule and for Bosnia to be part of a Greater Serbia. One particular nationalist group that gained notoriety during this period was the Black Hand Gang.
The Black Hand Gang
A secret Serbian organisation that wanted to create a Greater Serbia through terrorist activity.
On 28 June 1914, heir-presumptive Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie travelled to the Bosnian city of Sarajevo. While travelling via open-top car through the streets, Black Hand Gang member Nedjelko Cabrinovic bombed the vehicle. However, Franz Ferdinand and his wife were unscathed and decided to visit the wounded bystanders in a nearby hospital. While travelling to the hospital, Ferdinand's driver accidentally took a wrong turn, steering straight into the path of Black Hand Gang member Gavrilo Princip, who was buying lunch at the time. Princip fired at the couple without hesitation, killing the Archduke and his wife.
Fig. 5 Gavrilo Princip.
After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. In turn, Russia – an ally of Serbia – declared war on Austria-Hungary, and Germany – an ally of Austria-Hungary – declared war on Russia. Thus began the First World War.
Causes of First World War – Key takeaways
- While the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is often cited as the sole cause of WWI, there were many long-term factors at play.
- The four leading causes of the First World War are Militarism, Alliance Systems, Imperialism, and Nationalism (MAIN).
- Militarism, Alliance Systems, Imperialism, and Nationalism increased tensions between the European powers. It split Europe into two camps: The Triple Alliance and The Triple Entente.
- When Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated, the aforementioned causes elevated the Eastern European conflict into a major European war.
References
- H.W. Poon 'Militarism', The Corner (1979)
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