Knights, horses, kings, jousts, castles, and feudalism; are the hallmark characteristics of what we would typically consider a "kingdom" (at least in a European context), but the Southeast Asian Kingdoms were painted in a different color. Geographically situated between China and India, Southeast Asia was a melting pot of religions, cultures, and commerce by the Indian Ocean and Chinese Seas. Developing upon foreign customs and ideologies, Southeast Asian Kingdoms were not merely the product of Chinese or Indian thought. Instead, the empires and states that arose in Medieval Southeast Asia were wonderfully unique in form and influential in presence, unafraid of meddling in the affairs of seemingly more extraordinary world powers.
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Jetzt kostenlos anmeldenKnights, horses, kings, jousts, castles, and feudalism; are the hallmark characteristics of what we would typically consider a "kingdom" (at least in a European context), but the Southeast Asian Kingdoms were painted in a different color. Geographically situated between China and India, Southeast Asia was a melting pot of religions, cultures, and commerce by the Indian Ocean and Chinese Seas. Developing upon foreign customs and ideologies, Southeast Asian Kingdoms were not merely the product of Chinese or Indian thought. Instead, the empires and states that arose in Medieval Southeast Asia were wonderfully unique in form and influential in presence, unafraid of meddling in the affairs of seemingly more extraordinary world powers.
Thousands of years before the rise of Southeast Asian Kingdoms in the Medieval Era (5th to 15th century CE), the Austronesian-speaking peoples of the region embarked on a special mission of outward migration. Before 6,000 BCE, many of the islands of the Malay Archipelago had been connected due to low sea levels. Even after sea levels rose, separating the islands, the ancient Austronesian peoples found ways to continue traveling.
Homo Floresiensis, the last non-Sapiens species of the Homo genus, lived on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Some historians speculate that the Homo Floresiensis lived as recently as 12,000 years ago, but recent discoveries have incited other historians to push that date back to 50,000 BCE. Archaeological excavations reveal stone tools used by the Homo Floresiensis tens of thousands of years before Homo Sapiens came to dominate the region!
A new wave of migration and expansion began after 4,000 BCE when sophisticated technological developments in sea travel allowed the Austronesians to spread across Southeast Asia and even Madagascar and Hawaii. This expansion led to a vast geographical landscape in Southeast Asia where distant settlements, separated by thick jungles or entire seas, could develop independently and engage in willful trade with neighbors.
Modern-day Myanmar (Burma in the map above), Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines had all been settled. Native and distinct Southeast Asian cultures began to arise, such as the Dong Son culture of modern-day Vietnam, notable for its advancements in metallurgy and agricultural techniques. Reminiscent of the initial Malay immigration. However, Southeast Asia was not destined for a history of isolationism and inward growth.
Indianization and Sinicization in Medieval Southeast Asia:
Indian and Han Chinese cultures played a significant role in the development of the Southeast Asian Kingdoms. Still, they did not dominate the region nor allow for successful colonization efforts by India or China. Southeast Asian Kingdoms retained much of their traditions and identity while merging Indian and Chinese beliefs into their cultures and societies.
For example, some Southeast Asian kingdoms adopted a caste system similar to Hindu India, and Confucian values were readily adopted to help maintain social order. However, Southeast Asia remarkably retained extensive rights for women, such as in the Khmer Empire, where women were dominantly in charge of trade, commerce, and finances.
From the north came the swords and soldiers of China, invading Cham to prevent the rise of a powerful neighbor. Chinese soldiers brought their technologies, customs, and religion, especially Buddhism. From the western seas landed Indian merchants, intent not on war but commerce. They transferred Hinduism into Southeast Asia, one of the most impactful religions in the area. By the Medieval Era, India's and China's cultures found a strong foothold in the rising Southeast Asian Kingdoms.
The Southeast Asian Kingdoms were no ordinary kingdoms, at least not in the European sense. Some historians refer to the Southeast Asian political states as mandalas to ascribe a more accurate title.
Mandala:
The defining political shape of Southeast Asian states; is Sanskrit for "circle," representing a model of the universe in Hinduism or Buddhism; the term is used to describe Southeast Asian states as spheres of power from which a central figure or city extends loose control over a region through alliance and trade.
The definition of the term Mandala reveals two key aspects:
As Southeast Asian agriculture and trade flourished into the 5th century, scarce and weak mandalas grew larger, consolidating their power. Eventually, mandalas in Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam became powerful enough that they began to resemble empires. Still, large cities such as Angkor belonged to a distinct ruling power, but farmlands were not owned by a ruling elite, as seen in the feudalism of other contemporary kingdoms.
Moving away from mainland Southeast Asia and into the Philippines, political states were known as "barangays." Given the nature of many islands of the Malay Archipelago, political structures were far less centralized than even the Mandalas of mainland Southeast Asia.1
Several Southeast Asian Kingdoms rose to prominence (and fell) during the Medieval Era. The chart below organizes a handful of essential kingdoms within Southeast Asia into their names, locations, periods, and some general facts:
Name: | Location: | Time: | Quick Facts: |
Champa | Southern Vietnam | 192 CE to 1892 CE | Greatest military rival to the Khmer Empire; written texts as early as the 4th century; trade with China and the Indian Ocean; strong Hindu then Islamic influences. |
Dai Viet | Northern Vietnam | 968 CE to 1400 CE, 1428 CE to 1804 CE | Conquered into Cambodia and Southern Vietnam; it lasted until the Modern Era, establishing modern Vietnam; Medieval state religion was Buddhism. |
Ayutthaya (of Siam) | Thailand | 1351 CE to 1757 CE | Engaged in extensive world trade; used Burmese as a buffer but often fought the Burmese; considered partially responsible for the fall of the Khmer Empire |
Srivijaya | Sumatra (an island in Indonesia) | 7th century CE to 1275 CE | The commercial empire that dominated trade along the vital Strait of Malacca; was conquered by the Indian Chola Dynasty in the 13th century. |
Pagan (of Burma) | Myanmar | 849 CE to 1257 CE | Burmese Mandala, the predecessor of the Toungoo Dynasty, constructed thousands of Buddhist temples in the Myanmar region, weakened by Mongol invasions. |
Buatan | Philippines | Pre-1000 CE to 1521 CE | Engaged in extensive trade within Southeast and East Asia; visited by Ferdinand Magellan and later brutally conquered by the Spanish Maritime Empire. |
While impressive, the Khmer Empire of modern-day Cambodia will be discussed sparingly in this explanation, as its importance warranted its explanation in another article!
Mandalas such as Ayutthaya and Pagan belonged within wider ethnic regions that roughly coincided with Thailand and Myanmar. Some mandalas existed well before their supposed beginning date; historians recognize that the first written reference of Buatan was in a Song Dynasty correspondence in 1001 CE, but also acknowledge that the kingdom existed long before then.
The earliest and longest lasting of the Southeast Asian Kingdoms was Champa, of the Cham people. Adorned in jewels and precious metals, Cham kings were known as raja-di-raja, a Hindu title meaning "king of kings." The grandiose title indicates a trend of absolute, divinely-ordained rule in the Southeast Asian Kingdoms, typically built upon Hindu beliefs.
Champa formed an alliance with the rising Dai Viet in the 13th century to repel the invading Yuan Dynasty, and the alliance found success. The two kingdoms often quarreled, however, leading to the Cham-Vietnamese Wars. In 1471, Date Viet ravaged Champa, effectively ending the Cham kingdom, though small mandalas persisted until the 19th century.
As the Southeast Asian Kingdoms grew throughout the Medieval Period, they acquired similar characteristics:
It was not uncommon for Southeast Asian Kingdoms to rise and fall after only a handful of centuries, their significance obscured by modern history. But where political structures dissolved and cultures endured, Southeast Asia remains a fascinating world of converged ethnic groups, world religions, and beliefs.
Siam, Champa, Dai Viet, Pagan, Buatan, Srivijaya, and Khmer are only a handful of mandalas that ruled in Southeast Asia; these overlooked kingdoms played essential roles in the Medieval Era, their cities rivaling Baghdad and Constantinople, their art and architecture rivaling China and Europe.
The most important cultural influences on Southeast Asian Kingdoms came from India and China, especially in the form of Hinduism and Buddhism.
Southeast Asian Kingdoms prospered from flourishing agriculture and especially trade.
Southeast Asian Kingdoms remained remarkably active in commerce and communication with both India and China, acting as the middle point in Asian sea trade.
The most powerful kingdom in Southeast Asia during the Medieval Period was the Khmer Empire, notable for its large cities, Hindu and Buddhist influence, and wonderful architecture.
One of the earliest and long lasting major kingdoms in Southeast Asia was Champa in southern Vietnam, rising in the 2nd century CE.
Define mandala.
The defining political shape of Southeast Asian states; Sanskrit for "circle", representing a model of the universe in Hinduism or Buddhism; the term is used to describe Southeast Asian states as spheres of power from which a central figure or city extends loose power over a region through alliance and trade.
Which two countries influenced Southeast Asia the most during the Medieval Era?
India
The Austronesian peoples settled upon the ____ Archipelago in Southeast Asia.
Malay
Where was Champa located?
Southern Vietnam
Dai Viet and Champa united against which invasive foreign threat?
Yuan Dynasty
Which Southeast Asian Kingdom ruled over the Strait of Malacca?
Srivijaya
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