Invention of Gunpowder

For hundreds of years, humans could not imagine warfare beyond cavalry and archers, fortress walls, and catapults. Improvements had been made to earlier designs of weaponry, but the shape of warfare largely stayed the same. That is, until the Chinese invented gunpowder. While researching to create a potion of immortality, Chinese alchemists stumbled upon a chemical solution that could create a fiery explosion. Over a thousand years later, the invention of gunpowder's significance is still seen in modern military weaponry and societies of the modern world.

The Invention of Gunpowder Facts

The invention of gunpowder can be traced back to the middle of the 9th century in the Chinese Tang Dynasty. Chinese alchemists, using the chemical saltpeter (potassium nitrate), were attempting to create a potion of immortality. Instead, they created one of the most destructive tools in human history: gunpowder.

Fig. 1 - An excerpt from "Wujing Zongyao", the earliest Chinese document that details the chemical formula for gunpowder.

The earliest written formulas for gunpowder can be found in the Wujing Zongyao, a Chinese military manual from 1044 CE. The three primary ingredients in gunpowder were saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. Mixing in some other minor ingredients, Chinese inventors created a host of unique weapons, ranging from the terrifying "nest of bees" (an artillery battery that launched dozens of arrows at once) to gunpowder-propelled rockets and handheld explosives.

History of Gunpowder

Following its invention in China, gunpowder has a long and storied history with many subsequent inventions and innovations. Traveling through the Silk Road, gunpowder influenced the development of every military in Eurasia throughout the Middle Ages and beyond.

Fig. 2 - Artistic depiction of gunpowder-propelled arrows in "Wubei Zhi", a Chinese military book.

The Spread of Gunpowder

Gunpowder weaponry became integrated into the Chinese military as early as the 11th century, used in defense against attacking forces. In the 13th century, the Song Dynasty and the northern Chinese kingdom of Xi Xia used gunpowder arrows and rockets to fend off Mongolian invaders. (Although gunpowder weapons would soon come to dominate the battlefield, they couldn't stop the armies of Genghis Khan!)

Fig. 3 - Map depicting the Silk Road.

Under the peace and infrastructure of the Mongol Empire, the Silk Road flourished once more. Along with other goods and diseases, gunpowder technology spread into western lands in Europe and the Middle East. The Chinese were not intent on spreading the secret of gunpowder; as early as 1076 CE, the trade of saltpeter outside of China was banned. Because the Mongols, however, gunpowder recipes were being published in Europe by the end of the 13th century.

Types of Gunpowder:

Alchemists across Eurasia tested many different combinations of ingredients, ranging from charcoal to saltpeter, to sulfur and even honey in their creation of gunpowder. The differences were minute; if a combination of substances was not adequate, it was quite obvious in testing.

Gunpowder Technology in the West

Philosopher and scholar Roger Bacon was the first to record a formula for gunpowder in Europe. Only a century later, in the mid-14th century, European cannons were rolling onto battlefields. In the Middle East, Arabs were already hard at work constructing the first gunpowder rifle, a weapon that would revolutionize warfare forever. Ironically, the facilitated travel of gunpowder to Europe and the Middle East by the Mongols introduced powerful gunpowder weapons in defense against future Mongol invasions.

Fig. 4 - Cannon fire raining down during the Siege of Constantinople.

Since the 10th century, militaries in Eurasia began equipping themselves with gunpowder weapons. It was not until the 15th century, however, that the strength of gunpowder was revealed. In 1453, the Ottoman Empire completed a 53-day siege of Constantinople, the center of the Byzantine Empire. The layers of defensive walls of Constantinople had repelled Ottoman invaders three times in the past, but with the new power of siege cannons, the Ottomans crumbled the city's walls.

The very essence of warfare had changed; old tactics and weapons became invalidated. By the 17th century, gunpowder rifles and cannons were commonplace among European and Asian militaries.

Uses for Gunpowder

Gunpowder was mostly used in firearms and other battlefield weaponry, such as cannons. There are some other uses for gunpowder, however, including:

• Fireworks and special effects

• Explosive devices (not necessarily for battle, such as usage in mining)

• Medicine (gunpowder was often used to pack open wounds in battle)

Additionally, the development of gunpowder weapons differed in China and the western lands. In China, gunpowder was used to create anti-infantry batteries, as Chinese walls were built as thick stone slopes (which proved to be quite resilient against early cannon fire). European and Middle Eastern walls, on the other hand, were comparatively thinner and susceptible to damage by cannon barrages. Therefore, cannons were continually developed and enhanced in Europe and the Middle East.