From Empire to Nation State

Nation. State. Country. We often use these words interchangeably. Today, the idea of one person having their own independent country is widely accepted. However, that has not always been the case in world history. Even into the 20th century, many people lived under the rule of large empires.

What defines a nation? When does a country become a nation-state? How did the main form of political organization change from empire to the nation-state? To understand how the world shifted from being dominated by large empires to nation-states, we must consider these concepts and how new nation-states emerged from empires.

Difference Between a Nation-State and an Empire

To help understand the difference between a Nation-State and an Empire, it's worth considering the definition of each.

Defining an Empire

An empire is a large area of multiple peoples under the same, usually centralized, rule. A good example is the British Empire of the eighteenth century. At one time, it included much of North America, parts of Africa, and large parts of Asia.

All of the people in those different areas were distinct. They spoke different languages, had different belief systems, and may have had different ideas about what was best for their futures. However, their destinies were all united under British decision-making.

Fig 1 - Map showing areas once under European control.

Defining a Nation-State

Defining a nation-state is a bit more complicated. We must consider what constitutes a state and a nation to understand their differences.

What is a state?

A state is a geographically defined area where a government has control. Think about the lines on a map. These lines are the borders that define what a state is. We often use the word country interchangeably with state.

Returning to our example of the British Empire, it was a state. However, it was not a nation-state. That is because it contained many nations.

What is a nation?

So then, what defines a nation?

Political scientists and historians have put forth several definitions and characteristics that make a nation. Language, religion, culture, ethnic politics, ideologies, and shared history are all factors that may help unite people into a homogeneous group.

However, many of the nations of South America speak the same language, have similar ethnicity, and share much in common culturally. So how can they be seen as different nations?

Meanwhile, a nation like the United States has a diversity of religions and races. It also has many immigrants that have different histories. Yet, it is also still considered one nation.

Here is a practical definition of a nation from Benedict Anderson: "an imagined political community."¹ He used the word imagined because different people in a nation do not all know each other individually. Yet, they see themselves sharing a common political destiny or a political community. The critical factor here is a shared future.

Imagine a person of your age who lives in a different city in your country. You do not know each other, and you may have very different ideas, beliefs, and backgrounds, and you may even speak different languages. However, you still see yourself as being united by a common identity as citizens. You may disagree about politics, but you see yourselves as having a shared future. That makes you part of the same nation!

When does a nation become a nation-state?

A nation-state has sovereignty over its territory, people, politics, and destiny. It is self-determined.

The majority of the contemporary nation-states today were created in the 19th and 20th centuries. They emerged from independence or unification, from an empire broken down, or from several republics forming a national unity.

The main difference between a nation-state and an empire is that a nation-state has independence and control of its future destiny. In an empire, a nation's fate is controlled under a system of vassal states.

The Nation-States and Empires' Relationship

Nation states' and empires' relationship depends on the situation and context. Sometimes the relationship was mutually supportive.

For example, Germany and Italy in the 1800s were split into several smaller independent kingdoms and city-states. However, the people in these areas saw themselves as one nation. In this context, nationalism meant calling for unification into one larger nation-state.

In these cases, the difference between a nation-state and an empire may not seem obvious. However, for the different nations living in those empires, nationalism meant something very different.

It meant separating themselves from imperial rule. In essence, they came to define their identities as separate. In these cases, the relationship between nation and empire was antagonistic, and people came to desire change from empire to nation-state.

Fig 2 - Gandhi used traditional home made clothing as a symbol of Indian culture and tradition in a show of nationalism.

Comparing Identity in Empires and Nation-States

It can be helpful to compare identity in empires and nation-states.

In an empire, people are seen first as subjects or citizens. Their identity as a different nation is deemphasized. This is tricky to define because many conquered people did not join empires by choice and racist attitudes usually meant conquered nations were not treated as equal citizens.

However, in theory, citizens of an empire would identify as united by membership in the empire.

When the transition from empire to nation-state happened, it was usually a result of people emphasizing their identity as members of distinct nations. This national identity trumped the identity of being part of an empire and led to calls for independence and a move from empire to nation-state.

Take, for example, the United States. Before independence, most citizens thought of themselves as British citizens, not as a distinct nation. However, some people began to see themselves as a distinct nation with a separate political destiny, although they still shared much in common culturally and socially with Britain.

Independence created the new nation-state of the United States of America with a new distinct identity from Britain.

Other new nation-states also emerged from independence movements in this era. However, much of the world remained ruled by large empires. After the Spanish colonies gained their independence, the more significant transition from empire to nation-state occurred in the 20th century.

From Empire to Nation-State in the 20th century

The ideas of the Enlightenment, democracy, and self-determination that influenced independence and the move from empire to a nation-state spread worldwide and led to more people calling for their sovereignty to pass from vassal-state to nation-state.

Comparing a map of Europe in 1914 to a map of Europe today is an excellent illustration of how the ideas of self-determination and the transition from empire nation-state as the best form of political organization became triumphant. Many new states were created after the First World War as the people there desired to move from empire to nation-state.

In many other cases, especially in Africa and Asia, economic grievances caused by industrialization, inequality, and capitalist exploitation of natural resources also contributed to calls for independence and nations wanting to control their own resources and political and economic destinies.

Case Study: China, from Empire to Nation-State

An interesting case study for the transition from empire to the nation-state is that of China. Imperial powers carved out spheres of influence and trade within China in the 19th century.

Fig 5 - Cartoon showing European powers and Japan carving up China like a pie.

By the 1920s, there were two competing nationalist movements in China: the Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-Shek and the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong. Both sought to unify China as one nation-state and engaged in a civil war over their competing visions.

After taking power in 1949, Mao's government often used the rhetoric of nationalism as part of its propaganda appeals to the Chinese people.

The Chinese Civil War and the rise of Mao's China are complex and involve multiple factors. However, its history going from empire to nation-state is an illustrative example to compare identity in empires and nation-states, to see how European imperialism affected the rest of the world, and how nationalism could be used to support independence and national unity.

2. Rudyard Kipling. "The White Man's Burden." 1898.