How glorious was the Glorious Revolution, really? Touted as a bloodless change of power from an absolutist to a constitutional monarchy, the Revolution of 1688 saw the removal of King James II of England, Scotland, and Ireland and the invasion of Prince William of Orange. He, with his wife, became King William III and Queen Mary II, joint rulers of the three British kingdoms. What caused such a dramatic power shift? This article will define the causes, development, and results of Britain's Glorious Revolution.
Absolute Monarchy:
A style of government where a monarch, or ruler, has complete control over state power.
Constitutional Monarchy:A government structure where the monarch shares power with citizens' representatives, such as a Parliament, under a constitution.
Fig. 1 The line of Stuart monarchs
Causes of Britain's Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution had both long-term and short-term causes. Historians debate which set of causes had more weight in bringing the country again to war.
Long-Term Causes of the Glorious Revolution
The events leading up to the Glorious Revolution began with the English Civil War (1642-1650). Religion played a significant role in this conflict. King Charles I attempted to force his people to follow a prayer book that many considered too close to Catholicism. The people revolted–any policy that appeared in favor of Catholicism in England was hotly opposed. The English people feared Catholicism and the influence of the Pope's court in Rome. The English felt that toleration of Catholicism violated their rights and liberties as an independent nation.
Charles I was killed in a public execution, and a protectorate under Oliver Cromwell replaced the monarchy. The monarchy was restored following Cromwell's death in 1660, and Charles I's son, Charles II, became king. Charles II was a Protestant, which settled some religious tension at the beginning of the Restoration period (1660-1688). However, that calm did not last long.
Short-Term Causes of the Glorious Revolution
Charles II had no legitimate child to name his heir, which meant that his younger brother James was next in line. Anti-Catholic hysteria reared its ugly head when James took an Italian Catholic princess, Mary of Modena, as his wife in 1673 and publicly announced his conversion to Catholicism in 1676. The English were outraged and now worked towards removing the possibility of having a Catholic king on the throne.
Fig. 2 Portrait of Queen Mary of Modena
Who was Mary of Modena?
Mary of Modena (1658-1718) was an Italian princess and the only sister of Duke Francesco II of Modena. She married James, then Duke of York, in 1673. Mary encouraged literature and poetry in her household, and at least three of her ladies became accomplished writers. In June 1688, Mary–then coregent with William III–gave birth to her only surviving son, James Francis Edward.
Fig. 3 Portrait of Prince James Francis Edward Stuart
However, wild rumors about the child's legitimacy circulated widely instead of securing the royal succession. One of the leading rumors was that little James was smuggled inside a warming-pan (a pan placed under the mattress to warm a bed) into Mary's birth chamber!
The Popish Plot (1678-81) and Exclusion Crisis (1680-82)
Anti-Catholic hysteria reached a fever pitch when news of a plot to murder King Charles II and replace him with James reached Parliament. The story was entirely made-up by a mentally unstable former cleric named Titus Oates. Still, it was just the sort of ammunition needed for Parliament to work on removing the Catholic threat from the nobility and upper administration. By 1680 forty Catholics were killed either by execution or dying in prison.
The Exclusion Crisis was built on the anti-Catholicism generated by the Popish Plot. The English felt
that at any moment their city would be set ablaze, their wives raped, their babies skewered on pikes… should the king's brother, a Catholic, ascend the throne." 1
King James II (r. 1685-1688)
Accomplishments | Failures |
Advocated for religious toleration for all religions with the Declaration of Indulgence in 1687. | Heavily favored Catholics and did not get the Declaration approved by Parliament. |
Eliminated a law that restricted Catholics from holding office. | Tried to pack Parliament with Catholics and those who favored his policies so that it would always agree with him. |
Instilled religiously diverse advisors. | Alienated loyal Protestant subjects. |
Produced a male heir with his queen Mary of Modena in 1688. | The threat of a continued Catholic monarchy caused the nobility to act against their kind. |
Fig. 4 King James II landing at KinsdaleJames II vs. Prince William of Orange
The alienated nobility decided it was time to take matters into their own hands. Seven high-ranking nobles sent a letter to the Protestant Prince William of Orange in the Netherlands, husband of James' eldest child Mary, inviting him to England. They wrote that they were
generally dissatisfied with the present conduct of the government in relation to their religion, liberties and properties (all which have been greatly invaded)." 2
William used the rumors disputing the birth of James and Mary of Modena's infant son and Protestant fears of prolonged Catholic rule to gain support for an armed invasion of England. He invaded England in December 1688, forcing King James II and Queen Mary of Modena into exile in France. William and his wife Mary became King William III and Queen Mary II, joint Protestant rulers of England.
Fig. 5 William of Orange III and his Dutch army land in Brixham, 1688
Results of the Glorious Revolution
The revolt was not bloodless, nor was the new government universally accepted. However, as Steven Pincus argues, it was "the first modern revolution"3 as it created a modern state and initiated the Age of Revolutions, including the 1776 American Revolution and the 1789 French Revolution.
According to historian W. A. Speck, the revolution strengthened Parliament, transforming it from "an event to an institution." 4 The Parliament was no longer an entity summoned by the king when he needed taxes approved but a permanent governing body sharing administration with the monarchy. This moment was a significant shift in power towards Parliament, and subsequent generations would see Parliament gain more strength while the monarch's position weakened.
A Summary of Key Legislation in Britain due to the Glorious Revolution
Glorious Revolution - Key Takeaways
- Fear and hatred of Catholicism in England led to the people's inability to accept James II, a Catholic king.
- Although he argued it was part of general religious toleration, James' favoritism of Catholics led even his most loyal subjects to doubt and turn against him.
- The birth of James' son threatened a prolonged Catholic monarchy, leading seven nobles to invite Prince William of Orange to intervene in English politics.
- William invaded in 1688, forcing James II and his queen into exile. William became King William III and his wife Queen Mary II.
- The government structure changed from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy, expanding civil liberties through the 1689 Bill of Rights.
References
1. Melinda Zook, Radical Whigs and Conspiratorial Politics in Late Stuart Britain, 1999.
2. Andrew Browning, English Historical Documents 1660-1714, 1953.
3. Steve Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution, 2009.
4. WA Speck, Reluctant Revolutionaries: Englishmen and the Revolution of 1688, 1989.
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