Discourse markers are words and phrases that are used to manage and organize the structure of discourse. They connect sentences without changing the general meaning of what is being said. Discourse markers are also known as linking words, linking phrases or sentence connectors.
Discourse markers are words and phrases such as 'well', 'I mean', 'because' and 'however'.
The term 'discourse markers' was first introduced in 1988 by the American linguist Deborah Schiffrin.
Discourse markers: definition
As said before, Discourse markers are words or phrases that are used to signal the relationship and connections between utterances and ideas in a speech or writing. They serve to guide the listener or reader through the content, clarifying, connecting, and organizing the parts of the conversation or text.
Examples of discourse markers include words and phrases like 'however', 'on the other hand', 'because', 'firstly', 'in conclusion', and 'for instance'. These markers play a crucial role in making communication clear and coherent.
Discourse markers are crucial in exam settings because they help structure your responses and make your points clearer and more persuasive. Whether you're writing an essay or answering short answer questions, using discourse markers can guide the examiner through your thought process, showing the logical connections between your ideas.
For instance, you might use 'firstly', 'secondly', and 'finally' to organize your points in an essay. In a debate or argument, 'however' and 'on the other hand' can be used to introduce counterarguments.
By using these markers effectively, you can demonstrate your understanding of the subject matter and your ability to construct a coherent and logical argument, which can help you score higher in exams.
What is the purpose of discourse markers?
Discourse markers are helpful tools in making speech and writing both logical and coherent. Without discourse markers, the connections between sentences and paragraphs wouldn't be as smooth or clear. Discourse markers can also be categorized based on their function. Here are some examples:
- Additive: and, in addition, furthermore, also. They add information.
- Contrastive: but, however, on the other hand, although. They introduce a contrast or contradiction.
- Sequential: first, then, next, finally. They indicate order or sequence.
- Causal: because, therefore, so, as a result. They show cause and effect.
- Conclusive: in conclusion, to sum up, in summary. They signal the end of a discourse or summarising points.
Let's take a look at some examples with and without the use of discourse markers to see what effect they have:
With discourse markers:
- I don't like milk and it's not because I'm lactose intolerant.
- I usually wouldn't go to the theatre but I'll go with you.
- She's the most experienced doctor in the surgery, so they treat her with respect.
Without discourse markers:
- I don't like milk. I'm not lactose intolerant.
- I usually wouldn't go to the theater. I'll go with you.
- She's the most experienced doctor in the surgery. They treat her with respect.
Note how the use of the discourse markers ('because', 'but' and 'so') help the phrases to flow a lot smoother. Without discourse markers, the messages that are being sent might be vague and they might not even be understood.
Fig. 1 - Discourse markers help a conversation flow.
What are the four categories of discourse markers?
Discourse markers are split into four broad categories - interpersonal discourse markers, referential discourse markers, structural discourse markers and cognitive discourse markers. These categories were created by Israeli linguist Yael Maschler.
| Four Categories of Discourse Markers |
|---|
| Categories of discourse markers | Purpose of the discourse marker | Examples of discourse markers |
| Interpersonal discourse markers | Indicates the relationship between the listener and speaker. | Perception ('Look!), Agreement or Disagreement ('Exactly'), Amazement (Wow!). |
| Referential discourse markers | Indicates the sequence, causality (the cause and effect), and coordination between sentences. | Sequence ('Now' or 'Then'), Causality ('Because'), Coordination ('And') and Non-coordination ('But'). |
| Structural discourse markers | Indicates the hierarchy of the actions in a conversation at the exact time they are being performed. | Organization ('First of all'), Introduction ('To begin with'), Summarisation ('In conclusion'). |
| Cognitive discourse markers | Indicates the thought process of the speaker(s) during a conversation. | Processing Information ('Um'), Realization ('Oh!'), Rephrasing ('I mean'). |
Now, let's take a closer look at each category of discourse markers and their examples.
Interpersonal discourse markers
The purpose of interpersonal discourse markers is to indicate the relationship between the listener and the speaker.
There are a number of attitudes that show this relationship:
Perception
Interpersonal discourse markers that show perception include words and phrases such as 'look ', 'believe me' and 'you know'.
EVELYN: It was such a horrible experience.
AMIR: Believe me, I get it. It was horrible for me too.
EVELYN: Look, I know it seems like a lot now, for both of us. But we'll be fine. It's going to be alright, you know.
AMIR: Yeah. I know.
'Believe me', 'look' and 'you know' are interpersonal discourse markers that are used to express the perception of the participants in the conversation. They establish the relationship between Evelyn and Amir who exchange their turns as listener and speaker back and forth.
Agreement or Disagreement
Agreement can be expressed through the use of interpersonal discourse markers such as 'exactly', 'absolutely', 'certainly', 'definitely', 'okay' ', and 'I see'. Disagreement can be voiced with interpersonal discourse markers such as 'I'm not sure', 'mind you', 'I don't think so', 'I beg to differ' and 'not necessarily'.
Agreement:
AMIR: I think this is a very ugly vase.
EVELYN: Absolutely! It's hideous.
Disagreement:
AMIR: I think this is a very ugly vase.
EVELYN: I don't think so. It looks fine to me.
Note how, depending on the different discourse markers that are used, Evelyn can express either agreement or disagreement with Amir's statement.
Amazement
Amazement can be expressed through the use of a number of different interpersonal discourse markers, such as 'wow', 'wonderful' and 'yay'.
EVELYN: Look at my new dress!
MAYA: Wow! It's gorgeous!
The interpersonal discourse marker 'wow' enhances Maya's expression of amazement.
Referential discourse markers
Referential discourse markers are usually conjunctions. They are used to indicate the sequence, causality (the cause and effect), and coordination between sentences.
Sequence
Referential discourse markers that indicate sequence are words and phrases such as 'now' and 'then'.
MAYA: Now I'm fine. But you should've been there! He shouted at me ..
AMIR: And then what happened?
MAYA: Then I started crying.
Here, the referential discourse markers are used to organise Maya's story in sequences.
Causality
The cause and effect of an action, also known as causality, can be shown through the referential discourse markers 'because', 'as a result of', 'thanks to' and 'due to'.
EVELYN: I was late because my alarm didn't go off. Why were you late?
AMIR: Thanks to my brother who was in the bathroom, I had to wait for half an hour before I could brush my teeth!
Evelyn and Amir use the referential discourse markers 'because' and 'thanks to' to state the reasons for being late.
Coordination and Non-coordination
Referential discourse markers that express coordination and non-coordination, are used to connect sentences that are complete thoughts that don't depend on each other to make sense separately. To indicate coordination, you can use referential discourse markers such as 'and' and 'so'. As for non-coordination, you can use the referential discourse marker 'but'.
Take a look at these examples of referential discourse markers:
Coordination:
My shift ended and I went home.
The same effect can be achieved through the use of the discourse marker 'so':
Coordination:
My shift ended so I went home.
Non-coordination:
My shift hadn't ended but I went home.
Depending on the different discourse markers that are used, the message can be either one of coordination ('and', 'so') or non-coordination ('but').
Structural discourse markers
The role of structural discourse markers is to indicate the hierarchy of the actions in a conversation at the exact time they are being performed. This category of discourse markers expresses the value the speaker adds to the statements that are uttered in a conversation, highlighting which statements are the least and the most important to them.
Organization
Structural discourse markers that are used to show organization include phrases such as 'first of all', 'secondly', 'for a start', 'next' and 'last of all'.
EVELYN: First of all, you don't know me.
AMIR: Okay, and what's second of all?
EVELYN: Secondly, you have no right to judge me.
AMIR: I didn't mean to ...
EVELYN: And last of all, no one can tell me how to live my life.
In this conversation, Evelyn uses structural discourse markers to lay out her point and, in this way, to make a statement.
Introduction
Introduction can be expressed through the use of the structural discourse markers 'so', 'to begin with', 'to start with', 'for a start'.
MAYA: So we'll start the presentation by welcoming all of you here today.
EVELYN: Yes, thank you all for coming. To begin with, let's introduce ourselves!
Maya and Evelyn both use structural discourse markers to indicate the beginning of their presentation. As a structural discourse marker, 'so' has a different function than as a referential discourse marker. While as a referential discourse marker, 'so' is used to express coordination and to connect equal statements, as a structural discourse marker, the function of 'so' is to indicate the beginning of a statement.
Summarisation
Summarisation is the opposite of introduction - it expresses the ending of a statement. Some structural discourse markers that are used for summarization are: 'in the end', 'to sum up', 'to conclude', and 'in conclusion'.
EVELYN: To sum up, with this whole presentation, all we really want to say to you is that the most important thing in life is to be kind to others.
MAYA: In the end, that's all that really matters, isn't it?
Here, Evelyn and Maya use structural discourse markers to conclude their presentation and summarize their message.
Cognitive discourse markers
Cognitive discourse markers are used to reveal the thought process of the speaker(s) during a conversation.
Processing information
A speaker can express how they are processing the information that is exchanged during a conversation, through the use of cognitive discourse markers such as 'uhh', 'um ' and 'erm'.
AMIR: So what do you think?
MAYA: Um... I'm not sure. Let me think.
Amir asks Maya a question and her thought process is revealed through the use of the cognitive discourse marker 'um'.
Realization
Realization can be indicated through the use of cognitive discourse markers such as 'oh!', 'Really?' And 'oh no! '.
EVELYN: We're going to be late for class!
MAYA: Oh no! Let's hurry!
Maya's immediate reaction upon realizing the information she has been given is expressed through the cognitive discourse marker 'oh no!'.
Rephrasing
Some of the cognitive discourse markers you can use are those used to rephrase something you have already said. They include 'I mean' and 'in other words'.
I like pizza. I mean, I don't mind having it once in a while.
So that the speaker isn't misunderstood, they rephrase the statement with the cognitive discourse marker 'I mean'. This means they don't want pizza all the time, only 'once in a while'.
Formal discourse markers vs Informal discourse markers
Discourse markers can be used for different formal and informal purposes, both in discourse and in spoken conversation. Formal discourse markers are used in formal discourse while informal discourse markers are used in informal discourse.
| Examples of discourse markers | Written discourse | Spoken Discourse |
| Formal discourse markers | - Academic essays
- Official work-related documents
- Formal letters
- Emails
| Appears in formal communication, like diplomatic or business negotiations. |
| Informal discourse markers | - Emails
- Text
- DMs between friends
| Used in casual conversations between friends and small talk between acquaintances. |
Some examples of formal and informal discourse markers are:
Structural discourse markers stating organization (to introduce additional information):
- In addition, Furthermore, Moreover (formal)
- What's more, On top of that (informal)
Referential discourse markers stating non-coordination (to state something that is despite what has already been said or written):
- However, Nevertheless. Nonetheless (formal)
- But (informal)
Referential discourse markers stating causality (to explain something that is the result of something else):
- Consequently (formal)
- Because (informal)
Let's take a look at the difference between these formal and informal discourse markers examples:
Formal: I was exhausted. Nevertheless, I continued working.
Informal: I was exhausted but I kept on working.
Discourse markers - key takeaways
- Discourse markers, also known as linking words, are words and phrases that are used to manage and organize the structure of discourse. Discourse markers are words and phrases such as 'well', 'because', 'however'.
- The function of discourse markers is to make the connections between sentences and paragraphs clear.
- There are four categories of discourse markers: interpersonal discourse markers, referential discourse markers, structural discourse markers and cognitive discourse markers.
- Interpersonal discourse markers express perception, agreement or disagreement, and amazement. Referential discourse markers indicate sequence, causality, and coordination. Structural discourse markers show organization, introduction, and summary. Cognitive discourse markers express processing information, realization, and rephrasing.
- Discourse markers can be formal (moreover) and informal (what's more).
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