It's important to acknowledge the colonial past of our global history. Even though imperial empires no longer exist in the way they did one-hundred-and-fifty years ago, narratives of colonialism are still present in old and new literature. Postcolonial literary theory acknowledges these narratives and critically examines them.
Colonial past refers to the European colonisation of countries within the continents of Africa, the Americas, and Asia, from the 15th to mid-20th centuries. Colonialism is the practice of economically exploiting, obtaining and maintaining political control over a nation and its people.
Postcolonial refers to the period after European colonialism. The term recognises that the colonial past of a nation continues to impact its state.
Postcolonial literary theory conceptual meaning
Postcolonial literary theory is a school of thought that acknowledges and critically examines the political, economic, social, and historical impact of European colonisation through literature. This theory addresses the role literature plays in challenging and perpetuating cultural imperialism, taking into consideration the power struggle between the historically colonising powers and the countries and communities that have been historically colonised.
Cultural imperialism refers to how the colonisation of nations has impacted their culture and traditions. Cultural imperialism includes formal actions to oppress different cultural activities and social discourses which look down on different cultures and classify them as 'uncivilised'.
The theory is based on the idea that 'the world we inhabit is impossible to understand except in relationship to the history of imperialism and colonial rule'.1
The concept of colonialism is closely associated with the European colonial period. This period began in the 15th century, with the Portuguese conquest of Ceuta, Morocco, in 1415.
By 1800, at least 35% of the globe was controlled by European nations. By 1914 this has increased to 84%.2
Colonial rule had a damaging effect on colonies. Imperial European powers drained countries' economic and natural resources for their own financial gain, leaving the citizens of those countries worse off.
Postcolonial literary theory purpose
Postcolonial literary theory first emerged as a school of thought in the 1980s as a re-evaluation of narratives of European colonial rule and imperial expansion in literature. This school of thought became particularly concerned with how the Global South and people of colour are presented in European literature and how that presentation influences societal perception.
The Global South refers to the regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Many countries within these regions are LICs (low-income countries) due to their colonial past and mistreatment by the Global North (Europe and North America).
Postcolonial theory considers how our world's colonial past still influences literature today. As noted by Robert Young in the introduction of Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction (2001), postcolonialism
is concerned with colonial history only to the extent that that history has determined the configurations and power structures of the present.
The purpose of postcolonial literary theory is to address and critically examine literature produced in countries which were previously colonised. Through critically examining such literature, postcolonialism seeks to deconstruct the Western literary canon, which has traditionally favoured white voices.
The overriding narrative behind colonisation was that European nations represented the pinnacle of civilisation and culture. Colonisation was justified based on this idea, being framed as a 'civilising mission' by European nations. This narrative was spread and maintained through non-fiction and fiction literary works.
Postcolonial literary theory and critical approaches
Postcolonial literary theorists work to re-examine colonial and postcolonial literature, particularly the relationship between the colonised and the coloniser. We will take a look at some notable critical approaches to examining how this relationship between the colonised and the coloniser has shaped literature.
Let's take a look at the critical approaches of some important theorists attached to postcolonial literary theory.
Edward Said's Orientalism (1978)
In his text Orientalism, Said critiqued the study of the 'Orient', arguing that the purpose of this study was to certify the identity of Europeans rather than to be an objective form of academic study. European scholars certified their identity by 'othering' the peoples of colonised countries. The concept of the 'Other' argues that the identity of every culture is dependent on the existence of a different 'other' culture'. Therefore, to assure their own sense of culture and self, Western / European scholars constructed those in the Middle East and their culture as 'other'.
The Orient refers to the people of the Middle East. The term Orientalism in academic circles refers to Western beliefs and teachings on the Orient.
Said also explored how Europe and the West often portrayed the Middle East through false, romanticised images. Through this exploration, Said discussed the interaction between knowledge and power, arguing that a correlation exists between misrepresentations of the Middle East in literature and art and the justification of colonialism and imperial policies. These misrepresentations infantilised the colonial subaltern, justifying the narrative that colonised peoples needed to be 'cared for' and 'civilised' by a paternal, colonial body.
Subaltern is a term from postcolonial studies which refers to colonial populations ruled and controlled by an imperial body.
Edward Said was a literary critic and professor who lived from 1935 to 2003.
Chinua Achebe's 'An Image of Africa' (1975)
In his essay 'An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness', Achebe provides a critical analysis of Joseph Conrad's 1899 novella Heart of Darkness, written during the colonial period.
Achebe argued that Conrad presented Africa as 'the other world', 'a foil to Europe'. This argument was based on how Conrad dehumanised the African characters in the novella by portraying them without 'human expression' or dialogue.
Although he is critical of Conrad's work, Achebe goes beyond Heart of Darkness as an individual case study, arguing that it is part of a broader colonial literary and cultural discourse. Conrad's 'image of Africa' in Heart of Darkness may be steeped in racist and xenophobic biases and stereotypes. However, Conrad's perspective of Africa would have been developed by over a century of colonial narratives.
Therefore, the othering of Africa in Conrad's Heart of Darkness underpins how literature reflected and maintained the colonial narratives which justified imperial policies by presenting colonised nations and peoples as inferior.
Chinua Achebe was a Nigerian writer and literary critic who lived from 1930 to 2013.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's 'Can the Subaltern Speak?' (1988)
In her essay 'Can the Subaltern Speak?' Spivak provided a commentary on how the practice of Sati (or Suttee) is often not documented in literature. This essay took an intersectional approach, considering both postcolonial and feminist theories by examining the presentation and representation of women in previously colonised countries.
Sati refers to the practice in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting on her dead husband's funeral pyre.
An intersectional approach takes into account people's overlapping identities to understand the interconnected systems of oppression they face.
Spivak attributed this lack of documentation to the fact that Western and male authors controlled the documentation of cultural practices. The lack of voice held by the subaltern is a form of cultural imperialism, which threatens to erase the history and cultures of certain peoples who are considered 'less' than the majority (in this case, Westerners and men).
Characteristics and themes of postcolonial literary theory
Now that we understand the meaning of and approaches to postcolonial literary theory let's take a look at its characteristics and themes.
Characteristics of postcolonial literary theory
Postcolonial literary theory can be characterised as a revisionist theory. Revisionist theories or schools of thought typically challenge established or traditional views held by academics. In the case of postcolonial literary theory, theorists challenge traditional colonial perceptions and presentations of colonised nations, re-interpreting narratives that 'other' those from colonised nations.
Themes of postcolonial literary theory
Two notable themes present in postcolonial literary theory are conquest and anti-conquest and national identity.
Concepts covered by these themes include;
- Othering
- Diaspora
- Double consciousness
- Mimicry
Diaspora refers to how people have moved from their homelands to different locations around the world. Despite being located in different areas of the world, these peoples share a collective memory of their ancestral home, which shapes part of their personal identity. However, this ancestral home is not a literal place which one can visit.
Double consciousness is a concept coined by American academic and civil rights activist W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963). This concept suggests that a black person will perceive themselves in two ways; from their own perspective and through the eyes of white people. In the context of postcolonial studies, double consciousness argues that colonised peoples and people of colour across the world perceive themselves through these two different lenses.
Mimicry argues that colonised peoples often mimic their colonisers by adopting their language and culture. This mimicry can be both voluntary and forced. However, as stated in Homi Bhabha's essay 'Of Minicry and Man' (1984), the colonised reproduce the culture of the colonisers in a way that is 'almost the same, but not quite'. This subverts the idea that colonial powers held total control and authority over the colonised.
Conquest and anti-conquest
A key narrative in postcolonial literary theory is one that reframes the story of the conquest of colonised nations. Traditionally, natives were framed as the enemies of the coloniser for defending their homes and fighting back against colonisation. This discourse justified colonialism by portraying colonisation as a moral battle which 'good' Christian Europeans were on the right side of. In reality, natives were the victims of colonisation. Postcolonialism explores the way in which Europeans justified conquest and acknowledges that natives were justified in defending their homes.
In Imperial Eyes (2007) Mary Louise Pratt explores the writing of European explorers from the 18th century onward in relation to European colonialism. Pratt argues that the travel writing of European colonisers justifies colonialism through an 'anti-conquest' narrative that presents the narrators of these accounts as brave adventurers trying to survive in the unknown and 'uncivilised' worlds inhabited by a non-European Other.
Even though these narrators are 'exploring' these lands as part of the act of colonisation, and often perceiving the natives of these areas as lesser, their narrative creates a sense of naive innocence. This element of innocence discourages the reader from placing blame on the narrator for the crimes of colonisation, legitimising the process.
National identity
Postcolonial literary theory often considers how national identity has been impacted by colonial rule in order to reclaim it. Postcolonial literature published during and after the period of decolonisation, written by authors from or with heritage from colonised countries, often focused on presenting the cultures and peoples of their nations in a realistic way. This realistic portrayal opposed the way in which European literature 'othered' the cultures of colonised nations.
In his 1958 novel Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe portrays the Igbo tribe in Nigeria before and during colonisation. Achebe presents the Igbo tribe, and the novel's protagonist Okonkwo, in a realistic light. Allowing the societies and characters in his work to have both positive aspects and flaws. By doing so, Achebe attempts to capture an accurate sense of the Igbo culture before European colonisation.
Postcolonial literary theory, key works
Some significant colonial fiction works written during the period of European Colonialism which make up the postcolonial literary discourse are:
Did you know? Before the term postcolonial literature existed, works which discussed or were written in British colonies were referred to as commonwealth literature. The British Commonwealth is a group of 56 member states which were once colonies of the British Empire.
Some significant postcolonial fiction works, written after the period of European Colonialism, which make up the postcolonial literary discourse are:
Postcolonial Literary Theory - Key takeaways
- Postcolonial literary theory considers the power struggle between the historically colonising powers (European countries) and historically colonised nations.
- The purpose of postcolonial literary theory is to address and critically examine literature produced in countries which were previously colonised and deconstruct the Western literary canon, which has traditionally favoured white voices.
- Notable postcolonial literary theorists are Edward Said, Chinua Achebe, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.
- Postcolonial literary theory can be characterised as a revisionist theory as it challenges established or traditional views held by academics.
- Notable themes present in postcolonial literary theory are: conquest and anti-conquest, national identity, othering, diaspora, and mimicry.
References
- J Daniel Elam, 'Postcolonial Theory', in Oxford Bibliographies, 2019.
- Philip Hoffman, Why Did Europe Conquer the World?, 2015.
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